Identifying a base in a nucleic acid

ABSTRACT

Devices and techniques for hybridization of nucleic acids and for determining the sequence of nucleic acids. Arrays of nucleic acids are formed by techniques, preferably high resolution, light-directed techniques. Positions of hybridization of a target nucleic acid are determined by, e.g., epifluorescence microscopy. Devices and techniques are proposed to determine the sequence of a target nucleic acid more efficiently and more quickly through such synthesis and detection techniques.

This is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/543,789, filed onApr. 6, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,268,152; which is a continuation ofU.S. application Ser. No. 08/877,196, filed on Jun. 17, 1997, now U.S.Pat. No. 6,284,460; which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.08/505,919, filed Jul. 24, 1995, now abandoned; which is a continuationof U.S. application Ser. No. 08/082,937, filed Jun. 25, 1993, nowabandoned, the disclosures of all of which are incorporated herein byreference in their entireties.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

The invention described herein arose in the course of or under ContractNo. DE-FG03-92ER81275 (Grant No. 21012-92-II) between the Department ofEnergy and Affymax; and in the course of or under NIH Contract No.1R01HG00813-01.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of nucleic acid analysis,detection, and sequencing. More specifically, in one embodiment theinvention provides improved techniques for synthesizing arrays ofnucleic acids, hybridizing nucleic acids, detecting mismatches in adouble-stranded nucleic acid composed of a single-stranded probe and atarget nucleic acid, and determining the sequence of DNA or RNA or otherpolymers.

It is important in many fields to determine the sequence of nucleicacids because, for example, nucleic acids encode the enzymes, structuralproteins, and other effectors of biological functions. In addition tosegments of nucleic acids that encode polypeptides, there are manynucleic acid sequences involved in control and regulation of geneexpression.

The human genome project is one example of a project using nucleic acidsequencing techniques. This project is directed toward determining thecomplete sequence of the genome of the human organism. Although such asequence would not necessarily correspond to the sequence of anyspecific individual, it will provide significant information as to thegeneral organization and specific sequences contained within genomicsegments from particular individuals. The human genome project will alsoprovide mapping information useful for further detailed studies.

The need for highly rapid, accurate, and inexpensive sequencingtechnology is nowhere more apparent than in a demanding sequencingproject such as the human genome project. To complete the sequencing ofa human genome will require the determination of approximately 3×10⁹, or3 billion, base pairs.

The procedures typically used today for sequencing include the methodsdescribed in Sanger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1977)74:5463-5467, and Maxam et al., Methods in Enzymology (1980) 65:499-559.The Sanger method utilizes enzymatic elongation with chain terminatingdideoxy nucleotides. The Maxam and Gilbert method uses chemicalreactions exhibiting base-specific cleavage reactions. Both methodsrequire a large number of complex manipulations, such as isolation ofhomogeneous DNA fragments, elaborate and tedious preparation of samples,preparation of a separating gel, application of samples to the gel,electrophoresing the samples on the gel, working up of the finished gel,and analysis of the results of the procedure.

Alternative techniques have been proposed for sequencing a nucleic acid.PCT patent Publication No. 92/10588, incorporated herein by referencefor all purposes, describes one improved technique in which the sequenceof a labeled, target nucleic acid is determined by hybridization to anarray of nucleic acid probes on a substrate. Each probe is located at apositionally distinguishable location on the substrate. When the labeledtarget is exposed to the substrate, it binds at locations that containcomplementary nucleotide sequences. Through knowledge of the sequence ofthe probes at the binding locations, one can determine the nucleotidesequence of the target nucleic acid technique is particularly efficientwhen very large arrays acid probes are utilized. Such arrays can beformed according to the techniques described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,143,854issued to Pirrung et al. See also U.S. application Ser. No. 07/805,727,both incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

When the nucleic acid probes are of a length shorter than the target,one can employ a reconstruction technique to determine the sequence ofthe larger target based on affinity data from the shorter probes. SeeU.S. Pat. No. 5,202,231 to Drmanac et al., and PCT patent PublicationNo. 89/10977 to Southern. One technique for overcoming this difficultyhas been termed sequencing by hybridization or SBH. For example, assumethat a 12-mer target DNA 5′-AGCCTAGCTGAA (SEQ ID NO:1) is mixed with anarray of all octanucleotide probes. If the target binds only to thoseprobes having an exactly complementary nucleotide sequence, only five ofthe 65,536 octamer probes (3′-TCGGATCG, CGGATCGA, GGATCGAC, GATCGACT,and ATCGACTT) will hybridize to the target. Alignment of the overlappingsequences from the hybridizing probes reconstructs the complement of theoriginal 12-mer target:

(SEQ ID NO:2) TCGGATCG  CGGATCGA   GGATCGAC    GATCGACT     ATCGACTTTCGGATCGACTT

While meeting with much optimism, prior techniques have also met withcertain limitations. For example, practitioners have encounteredsubstantial difficulty in analyzing probe arrays hybridized to a targetnucleic acid due to the hybridization of partially mismatched sequences,among other difficulties. The present invention provides significantadvances in sequencing with such arrays.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Improved techniques for synthesizing, hybridizing, analyzing, andsequencing nucleic acids (oligonucleotides) are provided by the presentinvention.

According to one embodiment of the invention, a target oligonucleotideis exposed to a large number of immobilized probes of shorter length.The probes are collectively referred to as an “array.” In the method,one identifies whether a target nucleic acid is complementary to a probein the array by identifying first a core probe having high affinity tothe target, and then evaluating the binding characteristics of allprobes with a single base mismatch as compared to the core probe. If thesingle base mismatch probes exhibit a characteristic binding or affinitypattern, then the core probe is exactly complementary to at least aportion of the target nucleic acid.

The method can be extended to sequence a target nucleic acid larger thanany probe in the array by evaluating the binding affinity of probes thatcan be termed “left” and “right” extensions of the core probe. Thecorrect left and right extensions of the core are those that exhibit thestrongest binding affinity and/or a specific hybridization pattern ofsingle base mismatch probes. The binding affinity characteristics ofsingle base mismatch probes follow a characteristic pattern in whichprobe/target complexes with mismatches on the 3′ or 5′ termini are morestable than probe/target complexes with internal mismatches. The processis then repeated to determine additional left and right extensions ofthe core probe to provide the sequence of a nucleic acid target.

In some embodiments, such as in diagnostics, a target is expected tohave a particular sequence. To determine if the target has the expectedsequence, an array of probes is synthesized that includes acomplementary probe and all or some subset of all single base mismatchprobes. Through analysis of the hybridization pattern of the target tosuch probes, it can be determined if the target has the expectedsequence and, if not, the sequence of the target may optionally bedetermined.

Kits for analysis of nucleic acid targets are also provided by virtue ofthe present invention. According to one embodiment, a kit includes anarray of nucleic acid probes. The probes may include a perfectcomplement to a target nucleic acid. The probes also include probes thatare single base substitutions of the perfect complement probe. The kitmay include one or more of the A, C, T, G, and/or U substitutions of theperfect complement. Such kits will have a variety of uses, includinganalysis of targets for a particular genetic sequence, such as inanalysis for genetic diseases.

A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the inventionsherein may be realized by reference to the remaining portions of thespecification and the attached drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates light-directed synthesis of oligonucleotides. Asurface (2) bearing photoprotected hydroxyls (OX) is illuminated througha photolithographic mask (M₁) generating free hydroxyls (OH) in thephotodeprotected regions. The hydroxyl groups are then coupled to a5′-photoprotected deoxynucleoside phosphoramidite (e.g., T-X). A newmask (M₂) is used to illuminate a new pattern on the surface, and asecond photoprotected phosphoramidite (e.g., C—X) is then coupled.Rounds of illumination and coupling are repeated until the desired setof oligonucleotide probes is obtained. A target (R) is exposed to theoligonucleotides, optionally with a label (*). The location(s) where thetarget binds to the array is used to determine the sequence of thetarget;

FIG. 2 illustrates hybridization and thermal dissociation ofoligonucleotides, showing a fluorescence scan of a target nucleic acid(5′-GCGTAGGC-fluorescein) hybridized to an array of probes. Thesubstrate surface was scanned with a Zeiss Axioscop 20 microscope using488 nm argon ion laser excitation. The fluorescence emission above 520nm was detected using a cooled photomultiplier (Hamamatsu 934-02)operated in photon counting mode. The signal intensity is indicated onthe scale shown to the right of the image. The temperature is indicatedto the right of each panel in ° C.;

FIG. 3 illustrates the sequence specificity of hybridization. (A) is anindex of the probe composition at each synthesis site. 3′-CGCATCCGsurface immobilized probe (referred to herein as S-3′-CGCATCCG) wassynthesized in stripes 1, 3, and 5, and the probe S-3′-CGCTTCCG wassynthesized in stripes 2, 4, and 6. (B) is a fluorescence image showinghybridization of the substrate with a target nucleic acid (10 nM5′-GCGTAGGC-fluorescein). Hybridization was performed in 6× SSPE, 0.1%Triton X-100 at 15° C. for 15 min. (C) is a fluorescence image showinghybridization with a second nucleic acid (10 nM 5′-GCGAAGGC) added tothe hybridization solution of (B). (D) is a fluorescence image showinghybridization results after (1) high temperature dissociation offluoresceinated targets from (C); and (2) incubation of the substratewith a target nucleic acid (10 nM 5′-GCGAAGGC) at 15° C. for 15 min. (E)is a fluorescence image showing hybridization with a second nucleic acid(10 nM 5′-GCGTAGGC) added to the hybridization solution of (D);

FIG. 4 illustrates combinatorial synthesis of 4⁴ tetranucleotides. Inround 1, one-fourth of the synthesis area is activated by illuminationthrough mask 1 for coupling of the first MeNPoc-nucleoside (T in thiscase). In cycle 2 of round 1, mask 2 activates a different one quartersection of the synthesis substrate, and a different nucleoside (C) iscoupled. Further lithographic subdivisions of the array and chemicalcouplings generate the complete set of 256 tetranucleotides;

FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate hybridization to an array of 256octanucleotides. FIG. 5A is a fluorescence image following hybridizationof the array with a target nucleic acid (10 nM 5′-GCGGCGGC-fluorescein)in 6×SSPE, 0.1% Triton X-100 for 15 min. at 15° C. FIG. 5B is a matrixde-coder showing where each probe made during the synthesis ofS-3′-CG(A+G+C+T)⁴CG is located. The site containing the probe sequenceS-3′-CGCGCCCG is shown as a dark area. The combinatorial synthesisnotation used herein is fully described in U.S. application Ser. No.07/624,120, incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.;

FIGS. 6A to 6C illustrate a technique for sequencing a n-mer targetusing k-mer probes. FIG. 6A illustrates a target hybridized to a probeon a substrate. FIGS. 6B and 6C illustrate plots of normalized bindingaffinity vs. mismatch position;

FIG. 7 illustrates a fluorescence image of a hybridization experiment;

FIG. 8 illustrates hybridization events graphically as a function ofbase mismatch;

FIG. 9 illustrates fluorescence intensity as a function of pairs ofmismatches;

FIG. 10 illustrates a fluorescence image of a single base mismatchexperiment;

FIGS. 11A to 11C illustrate various single base mismatch profiles;

FIGS. 12A to 12D illustrate a process for determining the nucleotidesequence of an n-member (the number of monomers in the nucleotide)target oligonucleotide based on hybridization results from shorterk-member probes. In particular, FIGS. 12A to 12D illustrate applicationof the present method to sequencing a 10-base target with 4-base probes;

FIG. 13 illustrates a computer system for determining nucleotidesequence;

FIG. 14 illustrates a computer program for mismatch analysis and fordetermining the nucleotide sequence of a target nucleic acid;

FIGS. 15A and 15B illustrate wild-type and mutation analysis usingsingle base mismatch profiles;

FIG. 16 is a fluorescence image of a single base mismatch test; and

FIGS. 17A to 17D illustrate a technique for nucleic acid sequenceidentification.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS CONTENTS A. Synthesis B.Hybridization C. Mismatch Analysis D. Applications E. Conclusion

DEFINITIONS

Probe—A molecule of known composition or monomer sequence, typicallyformed on a solid surface, which is or may be exposed to a targetmolecule and examined to determine if the probe has hybridized to thetarget. A “core” probe is a probe that exhibits strong affinity for atarget. An “extension” probe is a probe that includes all or a portionof a core probe sequence plus one or more possible extensions of thecore probe sequence. The present application refers to “left” extensionsas an extension at the 3′-end of a probe and a “right” extension refersto an extension at the 5′-end of a probe, although the opposite notationcould obviously be adopted.

Target—A molecule, typically of unknown composition or monomer sequence,for which it is desired to study the composition or monomer sequence. Atarget may be a part of a larger molecule, such as a few bases in alonger nucleic acid.

n-Base Mismatch—A probe having n monomers therein that differ from thecorresponding monomers in a core probe, wherein n is one or greater.

A, T, C, G, U—Are abbreviations for the nucleotides adenine, thymine,cytosine, guanine, and uridine, respectively.

Library—A collection of nucleic acid probes of predefined nucleotidesequence, often formed in one or more substrates, which are used inhybridization studies of target nucleic acids.

A. Synthesis

A method for a light-directed oligonucleotide synthesis is depicted inFIG. 1. Such strategies are described in greater detail in U.S. Pat. No.5,143,854, assigned to the assignee of the present inventions andincorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

In the light-directed synthesis method illustrated in FIG. 1, a surface2 derivatized with a photolabile protecting group or groups (X) isilluminated through a photolithographic mask M₁ exposing reactivehydroxyl (OH) groups. The first (T-X) of a series of phosphoramiditeactivated nucleosides (protected at the 5′-hydroxyl with a photolabileprotecting group) is then exposed to the entire surface. Coupling onlyoccurs at the sites that were exposed to light during the precedingillumination.

After the coupling reaction is complete, the substrate is rinsed, andthe surface is again illuminated through a new or translated mask M₂ toexpose different groups for coupling. A new phosphoramidite activatednucleoside C—X (again protected at the 5′-hydroxyl with a photolabileprotecting group) is added and coupled to the exposed sites. The processis repeated through cycles of photodeprotection and coupling to producea desired set of oligonucleotide probes on the substrate. Becausephotolithography is used, the process can be miniaturized. Furthermore,because reactions only occur at sites spatially addressed by light, thenucleotide sequence of the probe at each site is precisely known, andthe interaction of oligonucleotide probes at each site with targetmolecules (either target nucleic acids or, in other embodiments,proteins such as receptors) can be assessed.

Photoprotected deoxynucleosides have been developed for this processincluding5′-O-(α-methyl-6-nitropiperonyloxycarbonyl)-N-acyl-2′-deoxynucleosides,or MeNPoc-N-acyl-deoxynucleosides, MeNPoc-dT, MeNPoc-dC^(ibu),MeNPoc-dG^(PAC), and MeNPoc-dA^(PAC). Protecting group chemistry isdisclosed in greater detail in PCT patent Publication No. 92/10092 andU.S. application Ser. No. 07/624,120, filed Dec. 6, 1990, and Ser. No.07/971,181, filed Nov. 2, 1992, both assigned to the assignee of thisinvention and incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

EXAMPLES

1. Protecting Groups

Because the bases have strong π-π* transitions in the 280 nm region, thedeprotection wavelength of photoremovable protecting groups should be atwavelengths longer than 280 nm to avoid undesirable nucleosidephotochemistry. In addition, the photodeprotection rates of the fourdeoxynucleosides should be similar, so that light will equally deprotecthydroxyls (or other functional groups, such as sulfhydryl or aminogroups) in all illuminated synthesis sites.

To meet these criteria, a set of5′-O-(α-methyl-6-nitropiperonyloxycarbonyl)-N-acyl-2′-deoxynucleosides(MeNPoc-N-acyl-deoxynucleosides) has been developed for light-directedsynthesis, and the photokinetic behavior of the protected nucleosideshas been measured. The synthetic pathway for preparing5′-O′-(α-methyl-6-nitropiperonyloxycarbonyl)-N-acyl-2′-deoxynucleosidephosphoramidites is illustrated in Scheme I.

In the first step, an N-acyl-2′-deoxynucleoside was reacted with1-(2-nitro-4,5-methylenedioxyphenyl)-ethan-1-chloroformate to yield5′-MeNPoc-N-acyl-2′-deoxynucleoside. In the second step, the 3′-hydroxylwas reacted with 2-cyanoethyl-N,N′-diisopropylchloro-phosphoramiditeusing standard procedures to yield the5′-MeNPoc-N-acyl-2′-deoxynucleoside-3′-O-diisopropylchlorophosphoramidites.These reagents were stable for long periods when stored dry under argonat 4° C.

A 0.1 mM solution of each of the four deoxynucleosides, MeNPoc-dT,MeNPoc-dC^(ibu), MeNPoc-dG^(PAC), and MeNPoc-dA^(PAC) was prepared indioxane. Aliquots (200 mL) were irradiated with 14.5 mW/cm² 365 nm lightin a narrow path (2 mm) quartz cuvette for various times. Four or fivetime points were collected for each-base, and the solutions wereanalyzed for loss of starting material with an HPLC system at 280 nm anda nucleosil 5-C₈ HPLC column, eluting with a mobile phase of 60% (v/v)in water containing 0.1% (v/v) TFA (MeNPoc-dT required a mobile phase of70% (v/v) methanol in water). Peak areas of the residualMeNPoc-N-acyl-deoxynucleoside were calculated, yielding photolysishalf-times of 28 s, 31 s, 27 s, and 18 s for MeNPoc-dT, MeNPoc-dC^(ibu),MeNPoc-dG^(PAC), and MeNPoc-dA^(PAC), respectively. In subsequentlithographic experiments, illumination times of 4.5 min. (9*t_(1/2)^(MeNPoc-dC)) led to more than 99% removal of MeNPoc protecting groups.

In a light-directed synthesis, the overall synthesis yield depends onthe photodeprotection yield, the photodeprotection contrast, and thechemical coupling efficiency. Photokinetic conditions are preferablychosen to ensure that photodeprotection yields are over 99%. Unwantedphotolysis in normally dark regions of the substrate can adverselyaffect the synthesis fidelity but can be minimized by using lithographicmasks with a high optical density (5 ODU) and by careful index matchingof the optical surfaces. Condensation efficiencies ofDMT-N-acyl-deoxynucleoside phosphoramidites to the glass substrates havebeen measured in the range of 95% to 99%. The condensation efficienciesof the MeNPoc-N-acyl-deoxynucleoside phosphoramidites have also beenmeasured at greater than 90%, although the efficiencies can vary fromsynthesis to synthesis and should be monitored.

2. Coupling Efficiency Measurements

To investigate the coupling efficiencies of the photoprotectednucleosides, each of the four MeNPoc-amidites was first coupled to asubstrate (via DMT chemistry). A region of the substrate wasilluminated, and a MeNPoc-phosphoramidite was added without a protectivegroup. A new region of the substrate was then illuminated; a fluorescentdeoxynucleoside phosphoramidite (FAM-phosphoramidite Applied Biosystems)was coupled; and the substrate was scanned for signal. If thefluorescently labeled phosphoramidite reacts at both the newly exposedhydroxyl groups and the previously unreacted hydroxyl groups, then theratio of fluorescence intensities between the two sites provides ameasure of the coupling efficiency. This measurement assumes thatsurface photolysis yields are near unity. The chemical coupling yieldsusing this or similar assays are variable but high, ranging between80-95%.

In a separate assay, the chemical coupling efficiencies were measured onhexaethyleneglycol derivatized substrate. First, a glycol linker wasdetritylated and a MeNPoc-deoxynucleoside-O-cyanoethylphosphoramiditecoupled to the resin without capping. Next, aDMT-deoxyucleoside-cyanoethylphosphoramidite (reporter-amidite) wascoupled to the resin. The reporter-amidite couples to any unreactedhydroxyl groups from the first step. The trityl effluents were collectedand quantified by absorption spectroscopy. Effluents were also collectedfrom the lines immediately after the MeNPoc-phosphoramidite coupling tomeasure residual trityl left in the delivery lines. In this assay, thecoupling efficiencies are measured assuming a 100% coupling efficiencyof the reporter-amidite. The coupling efficiencies of theMeNPoc-deoxyribonucleoside-O-cyanoethylphosphoramidites to thehexaethyleneglycol linker and the efficiencies of the sixteendinucleotides were measured and were indistinguishable fromDMT-deoxynucleoside phosphoramidites.

3. Spatially Directed Synthesis of an Oligonucleotide Probe

To initiate the synthesis of an oligonucleotide probe, substrates wereprepared, and MeNPoc-dC^(ibu)-3′-O-phosphoramidite was attached to asynthesis support through a synthetic linker. Regions of the supportwere activated for synthesis by illumination through 800×1280 μmapertures of a photolithographic mask. Seven additional phosphoramiditesynthesis cycles were performed (with the corresponding DMT protecteddeoxynucleosides) to generate the S-3′-CGCATCCG. Following removal ofthe phosphate and exocyclic amine protecting groups with concentratedNH₄OH for 4 hours at room temperature, the substrate was mounted in awater jacketed thermostatically controlled hybridization chamber. Thissubstrate was used in the mismatch experiments referred to below.

B. Hybridization

Oligonucleotide arrays can be used in a wide variety of applications,including hybridization studies. In a hybridization study, the array canbe exposed to a receptor (R) of interest, as shown in FIG. 1. Thereceptor can be labelled with an appropriate label (*), such asfluorescein. The locations on the substrate where the receptor has boundare determined and, through knowledge of the sequence of theoligonucleotide probe at that location one can then determine, if thereceptor is an oligonucleotide, the sequence of the receptor.

Sequencing by hybridization (SBH) is most efficiently practiced byattaching many probes to a surface to form an array in which theidentity of the probe at each site is known. A labeled target DNA or RNAis then hybridized to the array, and the hybridization pattern isexamined to determine the identity of all complementary probes in thearray. Contrary to the teachings of the prior art, which teaches thatmismatched probe/target complexes are not of interest, the presentinvention provides an analytical method in which the hybridizationsignal of mismatched probe/target complexes identifies or confirms theidentity of the perfectly matched probe/target complexes on the array.

Arrays of oligonucleotides are efficiently generated for thehybridization studies using light-directed synthesis techniques. Asdiscussed below, an array of all tetranucleotides was produced insixteen cycles, which required only 4 hours to complete. Becausecombinatorial strategies are used, the number of different compounds onthe array increases exponentially during synthesis, while the number ofchemical coupling cycles increases only linearly. For example, expandingthe synthesis to the complete set of 4⁸(65,536) octanucleotides addsonly 4 hours (or less) to the synthesis due to the 16 additional cyclesrequired. Furthermore, combinatorial synthesis strategies can beimplemented to generate arrays of any desired probe composition. Forexample, because the entire set of dodecamers (4¹²) can be produced in48 photolysis and coupling cycles or less (b^(n)compounds requires nomore than b×n cycles), any subset of the dodecamers (including anysubset of shorter oligonucleotides) can be constructed in 48 or fewerchemical coupling steps. The number of compounds in an array is limitedonly by the density of synthesis sites and the overall array size. Thepresent invention has been practiced with arrays with probes synthesizedin square sites 25 microns on a side. At this resolution, the entire setof 65,536 octanucleotides can be placed in an array measuring only 0.64cm². The set of 1,048,576 dodecanucleotides requires only a 2.56 cm²array at this individual probe site size.

The success of genome sequencing projects depends on efficient DNAsequencing technologies. Current methods are highly reliant on complexprocedures and require substantial manual effort. SBH offers thepotential for automating many of the manual efforts in current practice.Light-directed sytnhesis offers an efficient means for large scaleproduction of miniaturized arrays not only for SBH but for many otherapplications as well.

Although oligonucleotide arrays can be used for primary sequencingapplications, many diagnostic methods involve the analysis of only a fewnucleotide positions in a target nucleic acid sequence. Because singlebase changes cause multiple changes in the hybridization pattern of thetarget on a probe array, the oligonucleotide arrays and methods of thepresent invention enable one to check the accuracy of previouslyelucidated DNA sequences, or to scan for changes or mutations in certainspecific sequences within a target nucleic acid. The latter isimportant, for example, for genetic, disease, quality control, anforensic analysis. With an octanucleotide probe set, a single basechange in a target nucleic acid can be detected by the loss of eightperfect hybrids, and the generation of eight new perfect hybrids. Thesingle base change can also be detected through altered mismatchprobe/target complex formation on the array. Perhaps even moresurprisingly, such single base changes in a complex nucleic aciddramatically alter the overall hybridization pattern of the target tothe array. According to the present invention such changes in theoverall hybridization pattern are used to actually simplify theanalysis.

The high information content of light-directed oligonucleotide arraysgreatly benefits genetic diagnostic testing. Sequence comparisons ofhundreds to thousands of different mutations can be assayedsimultaneously instead of in a one-at-a-time format. Arrays can also beconstructed to contain genetic markers for the rapid identification of awide variety of pathogenic organisms, and to study the sequencespecificity of RNA/RNA, RNA/DNA, protein/RNA or protein/DNA,interactions. One can use non Watson-Crick oligonucleotides and novelsynthetic nucleoside analogs for antisense, triple helix, or otherapplications. Suitably protected RNA monomers can be employed for RNAsynthesis, and a wide variety of synthetic and non-naturally occurringnucleic acid analogues can be used, depending upon the motivations ofthe practitioner. See, e.g., PCT patent Publication Nos. 91/19813,92/05285, and 92/14843, incorporated herein by reference. In addition,the oligonucleotide arrays can be used to deduce thermodynamic andkinetic rules governing the formation and stability of oligonucleotidecomplexes.

EXAMPLES

1. Hybridization of Targets to Surface Oligonucleotides

The support bound octanucleotide probes discussed above were hybridizedto a target of 5′GCGTAGGC-fluorescein in the hybridization chamber byincubation for 15 minutes at 15° C. The array surface was theninterrogated with an epifluorescence microscope (488 nm argon ionexcitation). The fluorescence image of this scan is shown in FIG. 2. Thefluorescence intensity pattern matches the 800×1280 μm stripe used todirect the synthesis of the probe. Furthermore, the signal intensitiesare high (four times over the background of the glass substrate),demonstrating specific binding of the target to the probe.

The behavior of the target-probe complex was investigated by increasingthe temperature of the hybridization solution. After a 10 minuteequilibration at each temperature, the substrate was scanned for signal.The duplex melted in the temperature range expected for the sequenceunder study (T_(m)=28° C. obtained from the ruleT_(m)=[2°(A+T)+4°(G+C)]). The probes in the array were stable totemperature denaturation of the target-probe complex as demonstrated byrehybridization of target DNA.

2. Sequence Specificity of Target Hybridization

To demonstrate the sequence specificity of target hybridization, twodifferent probes were synthesized in 800×1280 μm stripes. FIG. 3Aidentifies the location of the two probes. The probe S-3′-CGCATCCG wassynthesized in stripes 1, 3 and 5. The probe S-3′-CGCTTCCG wassynthesized in stripes 2, 4 and 6. FIG. 3B shows the results ofhybridizing a 5′-GCGTAGGC-fluorescein target to the substrate at 15° C.Although the probes differ by only one internal base, the targethybridizes specifically to its complementary sequence (˜500 counts abovebackground in stripes 1, 3 and 5) with little or no detectable signal inpositions 2, 4 and 6 (˜10 counts). FIG. 3C shows the results ofhybridization with targets to both sequences. The signal in allpositions in FIG. 3C illustrates that the absence of signal in FIG. 3Bis due solely to the instability of the single base mismatch. Althoughthe targets are present in equimolar concentrations, the ratio ofsignals in stripes 2, 4 and 6 in FIG. 3B are approximately 1.6 timeshigher than the signals in regions 1, 3 and 5. This duplex has aslightly higher predicted T_(m) than the duplex comprising regions 2, 4and 6. The duplexes were dissociated by raising the temperature to 45°C. for 15 minutes, and the hybridizations were repeated in the reverseorder (FIGS. 3D and 3E), demonstrating specificity of hybridization inthe reverse direction.

3. Combinatorial Synthesis of, and Hybridization of a Nucleic AcidTarget to, a Probe Matrix

In a light-directed synthesis, the location and composition of productsdepends on the pattern of illumination and the order of chemicalcoupling reagents (see Fodor et al., Science (1991) 251:767-773, for acomplete description). Consider the synthesis of 256 tetranucleotides,as illustrated in FIG. 4. Mask 1 activates one fourth of the substratesurface for coupling with the first of four nucleosides in the firstround of synthesis. In cycle 2, mask 2 activates a different quarter ofthe substrate for coupling with the second nucleoside. The process iscontinued to build four regions of mononucleotides. The masks of round 2are perpendicular to those of round 1, and each cycle of round 2generates four new dinucleotides. The process continues through round 2to form sixteen dinucleotides as illustrated in FIG. 4. The masks ofround 3 further subdivide the synthesis regions so that each couplingcycle generates 16 trimers. The subdivision of the substrate iscontinued through round 4 to form the tetranucleotides. The synthesis ofthis probe matrix can be compactly represented in polynomial notation as(A+C+G+T)⁴. Expansion of this polynomial yields the 256tetranucleotides.

The application of an array of 256 probes synthesized by light-directedcombinatorial synthesis to generate a probe matrix is illustrated inFIG. 5A. The polynomial for this synthesis is given by:3′-CG(A+G+C+T)⁴CG. The synthesis map is given in FIG. 5B. All possibletetranucleotides were synthesized flanked by CG at the 3′- and 5′-ends.Hybridization of target 5′-GCGGCGGC-fluorescein to this array at 15° C.correctly yielded the S-3′-CGCCGCCG complementary probe as the mostintense position (2,698 counts). Significant intensity was also observedfor the following mismatches: S-3′-CGCAGCCG (554 counts), S-3′-CGCCGACG(317 counts), S-3′-CGCCGTCG (272 counts), S-3′-CGACGCCG (242 counts),S-3′-CGTCGCCG (203 counts), S-3′-CGCCCCCG (180 counts), S-3′-CGCTGCCG(163 counts), S-3′-CGCCACCG (125 counts), and S-3′-CGCCTCCG (78 counts).

C. Mismatch Analysis

The arrays discussed above can be utilized in the present method todetermine the nucleic acid sequence of an oligonucleotide of length nusing an array of probes of shorter length k. FIG. 6 illustrates asimple example. The target has a sequence 5′-XXYXY-3′, where X and Y arecomplementary nucleic acids such as A and T or C and G. For discussionpurposes, the illustration in FIG. 6 is simplified by using only twobases and very short sequences, but the technique can easily be extendedto larger nucleic acids with, for example, all 4 RNA or DNA bases.

The sequence of the target is, generally, not known ab initio. One candetermine the sequence of the target using the present method with anarray of shorter probes. In this example, an array of all possible X andY 4-mers is synthesized and then used to determine the sequence of a5-mer target.

Initially, a “core” probe is identified. The core probe is exactlycomplementary to a sequence in the target using the mismatch analysismethod of the present invention. The core probe is identified using oneor both of the following criteria:

-   -   1. The core probe exhibits stronger binding affinity to the        target than other probes, typically the strongest binding        affinity of any probe in the array (that has not been identified        as a core probe in a previous cycle of analysis).    -   2. Probes that are mismatched with the target, as compared to        the core probe sequence, exhibit a characteristic pattern,        discussed in greater detail below, in which probes that mismatch        at the 3′- and 5′-end of the probe bind more strongly to the        target than probes mismatched with the target.        In this particular example, selection criteria #1 identifies a        core 4-mer probe with the strongest binding affinity to the        target that has the sequence 3′-YYXY, as shown in FIG. 6A, where        the probe is illustrated as having hybridized to the target. The        probe 3′-YYXY (corresponding to the 5′-XXYX position of the        target) is, therefore, chosen as the “core” probe.

Selection criteria #2 is utilized as a “check” to ensure the core probeis exactly complementary to the target nucleic acid. The secondselection criteria evaluates hybridization data (such as thefluorescence intensity of a labeled target hybridized to an array ofprobes on a substrate, although other techniques are well known to thoseof skill in the art) of probes that have single base mismatches ascompared to the core probe. In this particular case, the core probe hasbeen selected as S-3′-YYXY. The single base mismatched probes of thiscore probe are: S-3′-XYXY, S-3′-YXXY, S-3′-YYYY, and S-3′-YYXX. Thebinding affinity characteristics of these single base mismatches areutilized to ensure that a “correct” core has been selected, or to selectthe core probe from among a set of probes exhibiting similar bindingaffinities.

An illustrative, hypothetical plot of expected binding affintity versusmismatch position is provided in FIG. 6B. The binding affinity values(typically fluorescence intensity of labeled target hybridized to probe,although many other factors relating to affinity may be utilized) areall normalized to the binding affinity of S-3′-YYXY to the target, whichis plotted as a value of 1 on the left hand portion of the graph.Because only two nucleotides are involved in this example, the valueplotted for a probe mismatched at position 1 (the nucleotide at the3′-end of the probe) is the normalized binding affinity of S-3′-XYXY.The value plotted for mismatch at position 2 is the normalized affinityof S-3′-YXXY. The value plotted for mismatch at position 3 is thenormalized affinity of S-3′-YYYY, and the value plotted for mismatchposition 4 is the normalized affinity of S-3′-YYXX. As noted above,“affinity” may be measured in a number of ways including, for example,the number of photon counts from fluorescence markers on the target.

The affinity of all three mismatches is lower than the core in thisillustration. Moreover, the affinity plot shows that a mismatch at the3′-end of the probe has less impact than a mismatch at the 5′-end of theprobe in this particular case, although this may not always be the case.Further, mismatches at the end of the probe result in less disturbancethan mismatches at the center of the probe. These features, which resultin a “smile” shaped graph when plotted as shown in FIG. 6B, will befound in most plots of single base mismatch after selection of a“correct” core probe, or after accounting for a mismatched probe that isa core probe with respect to another portion of the target sequence.This information will be utilized in either selecting the core probeinitially or in checking to ensure that an exactly matched core probehas been selected. Of course, in certain situations, as noted in SectionB above, identification of a core is all that is required such as in,for example, forensic or genetic studies, and the like.

In sequencing studies, this process is then repeated for left and/orright extensions of the core probe. In the example illustrated in FIG.6, only right extensions of the core probe are possible. The possible4-mer extension probes of the core probe are 3′-YXYY and 3′-YXYX. Again,the same selection criteria are utilized. Between 3′-YXYY and 3′-YXYX,it would normally be found that 3′-YXYX would have the strongest bindingaffinity, and this probe is selected as the correct probe extension.This selection may be confirmed by again plotting the normalized bindingaffinity of probes with single base mismatches as compared to the coreprobe. A hypothetical plot is illustrated in FIG. 6C. Again, thecharacteristic “smile” pattern is observed, indicating that the“correct” extension has been selected, i.e., 3′-YXYX. From thisinformation, one would correctly conclude that the sequence of thetarget is 5′-XXYXY.

EXAMPLES

1. (A+T)⁸ Array and Single Base Mismatch Stabilities

A 20-step, 4-replica combinatorial synthesis was performed usingMēnPoc-dA and MenPoc-dT. The lithographic masks were chosen such thateach member of a set of 256 octanucleotides was synthesized in fourseparate locations on the 1.28×1.28 cm array, yielding 1024 differentsynthesis sites, each containing an octanucleotide probe, each site400×400 μm in size. Following synthesis and phenoxyacetyl deprotectionof the dA amine, the substrate was mounted in a thermostaticallyregulated staining and flow cell, incubated with 1 nM5′-AAAAAAAA-fluorescein at 15° C., and then scanned in a Zeissepifluorescence microscope. The resulting fluorescent image is shown inFIG. 7.

Fluorescence intensities of the hybridization events as a function ofsingle base mismatch are provided graphically in FIG. 8. Each of thefour independent intensities for each octanucleotide probe that differsfrom the core probe at a single base is plotted. Position zero mismatch(i.e., the perfect complement 3′-TTTTTTTT) is the brightest position onthe array at ˜900 counts; the background signal of this array isapproximately 220 counts. Mismatch position 1 (at the 3′-end of theprobe) is the next brightest at ˜760 counts. A “smile” or “U” shapedcurve of the following positions indicates the relative stability of themismatches at each position of the probe/target complex. This “mismatchfamily” characteristizes nucleic acid interaction with an array ofprobes and provides or confirms the identification of the targetsequence. The mismatches at positions 3, 4, 5 and 6 are moredestabilizing and yield intensities virtually indistinguishable frombackground. The mismatch at position 1 (the point where the 3′-end ofthe octanucleotide is tethered to the substrate) is less destablizingthan the corresponding mismatch at position 8 (the free 5′-end). Theuniformity of the array synthesis and the target hybridization isreflected in the low variation of intensities between the four duplicatesynthesis sites.

The method of the present invention can also utilize information fromtarget hybridization to probes with two or more mismatches. Fluorescenceintensities as a function of pairs of mismatches are presented in FIG.9. In this case, the intensity data have been normalized so that aperfect match has intensity 1. For example, the data at index 1,8corresponds to mismatches at each end of the probe/target duplex. Thediagonal (index 1,1 to 8,8) corresponds to the single mismatchesillustrated in FIG. 8. The highest intensities correspond to single andpairs of mismatches at the ends of the probe/target complex.

2. (G+T)⁸ Array and Sequence Reconstruction

An octanucleotide array of MenPoc-dG and MenPoc-dT was synthesized. Theformat of the synthesis was similar to that for the (A+T)⁸ array,discussed above, and resulted in 256 octanucleotides of G and T inreplicates of four (1024 total). After final deprotection and attachmentto a temperature-controlled (15° C.) hybridization chamber, the probearray was incubated with 1nM 5′-AACCCAAACCC-fluorescein (SEQ IDNQ:3-fluorescein) target and scanned. The resulting image is given inFIG. 10. Four distinct but overlapping, perfectly complementaryoctanucleotide hybridizations are expected: 3′-TTGGGTTT, TGGGTTTG,GGGTTTGG, and GGTTTGGG. As shown herein, the moderate stability ofprobe/target complexes with single base pair mismatches generatesfamilies of probes with moderate signals. A cursory inspection of themany intense features of FIG. 10 revealed a complex pattern.

The reconstruction heuristic provided by the present inventioneffectively utilizes the complex data pattern in FIG. 10. The algorithmassumes as a general rule that perfectly matched probe/target complexeshave higher fluorescence intensities, and perfect matches and relatedsingle base mismatch typically form a profile similar to that shown inFIG. 6.

The probe with the highest intensity should be a perfect match to thetarget. Corresponding mismatch profiles are shown in FIGS. 11A to 11C.One first plots the mismatch profile for the probe with the highestintensity (S-3′-TGGGTTTG in this case) to verify that the probe isexactly complementary to the target. Assuming that this probe iscomplementary to a fragment of the target, we consider “extending” abase on the 3′-end of the target. In this case, there are two probechoices. One of the two 8-mer probes S-3′-GGGTTTGT and S-3′-GGGTTTGG,will be exactly complementary to the target nucleic acid. The mismatchprofile for each of these two probes, as well as for probeS-3′-TGGGTTTG, is shown with intensity values in FIG. 11A. Note that theprobe S-3′-GGGTTTGG has the mismatch profile most similar to that ofprobe S-3′-TGGGTTTG (a typical “smile” plot). Therefore, one willconclude that the correct extension probe is S-3′-GGGTTTGG.

FIG. 11B shows repetition of this process to evaluate the 3′-end of thetarget sequence. Because the probe S-3′-GGTTTGG has a smile-shapedmismatch profile most like the core S-3′-GGGTTTGG, and because the probeS-3′-GGTTTGGT does not, one will correctly conclude that the probeS-3′-GGGTTTGG is the correct extension probe. This process can berepeated until neither profile has the correct shape, or the absoluteintensity is well below that of the highest intensity, indicating thatthe “end” of the target has been reached. A similar method provides thesequence of the target extending to the 5′-end. FIG. 11C shows themismatch curves for all the perfectly matched probes; each curve has theconsistent shape predicted for this target.

The techniques described above can of course be readily extended tonucleic acids of any length, as illustrated in the various panels ofFIGS. 12A to 12D. As shown in FIG. 12A, a 10-mer target is to besequenced, and the sequence is indicated by 5′-N₁N₂N₃N₄N₅N₆N₇N₈N₉N₁₀-3′,where N is any nucleotide or nucleic acid monomer, and the subscriptindicates the nucleotide position in the probe, with 3 indicating the3′-end terminal monomer. Those of skill recognize that, if the probeswere synthesized with the 5′-end attached to the substrate, the methodof the invention can be applied with appropriate modification.

An array of shorter oligonucleotides can be used to sequence a largernucleotide according to one aspect of the present invention. In theparticular example shown in FIGS. 12A to 12D, 4-mers (oligonucleotideprobes 4 monomers in length) are used to sequence the unknown 10-mertarget. In practice, longer probes and targets will typically beemployed, but this illustrative example facilitates understanding of theinvention. A single member of the 4-mer array is shown in FIG. 12A andhas the sequence S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆, where the various P (probe) nucleotideswill be selected from the group of A, T, C, U, G, and other monomers,depending on the application, and the subscript indicates positionrelative to the target. For discussion purposes, the hybridization dataare presumed to be available from a single array. However, one canutilize multiple arrays, arrays synthesized at different times, or evenindividual probes to practice the method. As noted, the probe length of4 is selected to facilitate discussion; in practice, longer probes willtypically be employed.

S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆ is selected as a core probe from the array due to itsexhibition of a strong binding affinity to the target and a correctmismatch profile. In the array of all 4-mers, the sequence S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆is chosen as the core sequence, because when a fluorescein-labeledtarget (shown as 5′-N₁N₂N₃N₄N₅N₆N₇N₈N₉N₁₀*-3′ in FIG. 12A) is exposed tothe substrate, the target hybridizes to the probe, as indicated by thearrows in FIG. 12A, and high fluorescence intensity (i.e., a largenumber of photon counts) is observed in the portion of the substratecontaining the probe S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆, as compared to other portions of thesubstrate. Normally, the sequence exhibiting the strongest bindingaffinity will be chosen as the first core sequence.

One preferably verifies whether the first selected core sequence is aperfect complement to the target by examining the fluorescence intensityof probes in the array that differ from the core probe at a single base.FIG. 12B qualitatively illustrates a typical plot of relative intensityof single base mismatches versus position of the mismatch for theS-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆ core probe. As a simple example, assume that, in thesequence S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆, the nucleotide C is not present. FIG. 12Billustrates in a qualitative way the normalized fluorescence intensityof probes that differ from the core sequence probe by substitution of Cinto the sequence S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆ and in which none of the C-containingmismatched probes is exactly complementary to another sequence in thetarget. Accordingly, FIG. 12B plots the relative fluorescence intensityof the probe set:

S-3′-CP₄P₅P₆, S-3′-P₃CP₅P₆, S-3′-P₃P₄CP₆, and S-3′-P₃P₄P₅Cwhen they are hybridized to the target, normalized to the core probe. Inalternative embodiments, average curves are plotted for substitution ofall the possible nucleotides at each position (the “families” ofmismatched probes), or the highest intensity is plotted for eachposition. Thus, the 0 position on the X axis of the graph in FIG. 12Brepresents no substitution and shows the fluorescence intensity due totarget hybridization to core probe S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆. Because all values inFIG. 12B are normalized with respect to this value, the “nosubstitution” case has a normalized intensity of 1. When C issubstituted at the 3, 4, 5, and 6 positions, the relative intensityvalues are normally less, because none of these sequences are exactlycomplementary to the target in this example.

The relative fluorescence intensity of a probe/target complex with amismatch at the 3′- or 5′-end is typically higher than complexes withmismatches in the center of the probe/target complex, because mismatchesat the end of the probe tend to be less destabilizing than mismatches atthe center of the probe/target complex. Probe/target complexes withmismatches at the 3′-end of the probes may impact hybridization less(and thus have a higher fluorescence intensity) than those withmismatches at the 5′-end of the probes, presumably due to the proximityof the 3′-end of the probe to the substrate surface in this embodiment.Therefore, a curve plotting a normalized factor related to bindingaffinity versus mismatch position, tends to have the shape of a “crookedsmile,” as shown in FIG. 12B.

Using this methodology, one can extend a core sequence by examiningprobes on the array that have the same sequence as the core probe exceptfor having been extended at one end and optionally shortened at theother. These probes are evaluated as candidate second core sequences todetermine which probes are perfectly hybridized to the target. Byrepetition of this process, one can determine the complete nucleotidesequence of the target.

To illustate the method, FIG. 12C shows the 4 possible, 4-member “leftextensions” of the core probe S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆. As shown, the nucleotideadjacent to the sequence of the target complementary to S-3′-P₃P₄P₅P₆ iseither A, T, C, or G, or there is no adjacent nucleotide on the target(i.e., P₃ is complementary to the 5′-end of the target). Therefore, thepossible left extensions of the P₃P₄P₅P₆ core probe are probesS-3′-AP₃P₄P₅, S-3′-TP₃P₄P₅, S-3′-CP₃P₄P₅, and S-3′-GP₃P₄P₅. For thepurposes of this illustration, T is assumed to be actually “correct,” asA is in the complementary position in the target nucleic acid.

The upper left hand plot in FIG. 12D illustrates predicted hybridizationdata for the mismatch profile of the S-3′-AP₃P₄P₅ probe, with all datanormalized to S-3′-AP₃P₄P₅. Data points for all substitutions at each ofthe 2-5 positions are shown, but the average data for the threesubstitutions at each position could also be utilized, a singlesubstitution at each position can be utilized, the highest of the threevalues may be utilized, or some other combination. As shown in theS-3′-AP₃P₄P₅ graph, one point shows much higher binding affinity thanthe rest. This is the T substitution for A at position two. Theremaining data in the AP₃P₄P₅ graph have the normal “smile”characteristics shown in FIG. 12B. Similar plots are developed for the Cand G substitutions shown in the bottom portion of FIG. 12B. In eachcase, all datapoints are normalized to the presumed “core” probe in thegraph.

The T extension graph, shown in the upper right hand portion of FIG.12D, will not have aberrant curves like the 3′-AP₃P₄P₅ graph and others,because none of the monosubstitutions at position 2 of the 3′-TP₃P₄P₅probe will be exactly complementary to the target. Accordingly,substitutions of A, C, and G at position 2 all produce thecharacteristic “smile” plots predicted for probes with single basemismatches relative to the target. In addition, the fluorescenceintensity of the T substituted probe/target complex will normally behigher than the fluorescence intensity of the C, G, and A probe/targetcomplexes. These data can be used in various combinations to determinewhich of the extensions is “correct” and thereby determine the sequenceof the target nucleic acid.

From the data shown in FIGS. 12A to 12D, one concludes that the probeexactly complementary to the left extension of the target relative tothe core probe complementary sequence has an A monomer at position 2 inthe target.

This process is repeated until none of the graphs have appropriatecharacteristics, at which time it is concluded that an end of the targethas been reached. Similarly, right extensions are evaluated until theend of the target (or end of the sequence of interest) is reached.

The above techniques can obviously be conducted through manualobservation of the hybridization data. However, in preferred embodimentsthe data are analyzed using one or more appropriately programmed digitalcomputers. An exemplary system is illustrated in FIG. 13. As showntherein, the system includes a computer or computers 302 operated underthe control of a CPU and including memory 304, such as a hard disk, andmemory 306, such as dynamic random access memory. The computer is usedto control a scanning device 308 that measures the fluorescenceintensity or other related information from a labeled target nucleotidecoupled to portions of a substrate 2. The substrate 2 contains probenucleotides of known sequence at known locations thereon. A userprovides input via input devices 313.

Fluorescence intensity or other related information is stored in thememory 304/306. CPU 310 processes the fluorescence data to provideoutput to one or both of print device 312 or display 314. The data areprocessed according to the methods described herein, and output in theform of graphs such as those shown above, or in sequence of nucleic acidmonomers, or in simple (+)/(−) output, or other results of the analysisof such data may be obtained. Suitable computers include, for example,an IBM PC or compatible, a SPARC workstation, or similar device.

FIG. 14 is a flowchart for a typical computer program used to evaluatean array of n-mers and identify the sequence of an exactly complementary(for mismatch analysis) or a larger k-mer (for sequencing or otherpurposes). As shown therein, the system first identifies a core probe atstep 402 by, for example, selecting a probe having the highest bindingaffinity of some specified set of probes. The present method will oftenbe operational in iterative processes, where the highest affinity probein the array is not selected after the first iteration, and in othercases, it may be worthwhile, for example, to select the one, two, three,or more strongest binding probes and perform left and right extensionson each, then store and compare this information with other data beforeproviding the final output. The results can aid confirmation of thecorrect sequence.

At step 404 the system identifies all left extensions of the core n-mer.At step 406 the system selects the appropriate left extension by one orboth of:

-   -   determining which of the left extensions exhibits the behavior        most consistent with a preset monomer substitution pattern,        and/or    -   selecting the left extension exhibiting the highest binding        affinity.        The above selection criteria and others may in some embodiments        be used in an AND fashion, i.e., both of the criteria must be        met or the system assumes that one has either reached the        terminal monomer or the system is not performing acceptably. In        alternative embodiments, one of the criteria may be selected as        a primary selection mechanism, and the other may be used to        provide the user with warnings, potentially incorrect        selections, or alternate selections.

Thereafter, the system determines if the selection criteria have metsome minimum standard at step 408. If not, then the system assumes thatthe end of the sequence has been reached at step 410. If the selectioncriteria have been met, then the process is repeated beginning at step404 with the new “core” selected as the correct extension from theprevious core.

Thereafter, the process is effectively repeated for right extensions. Atstep 412 right extensions are identified. At step 414 a preset mismatchprofile probe is identified and/or high affinity right extension. Atstep 416 the system determines if the terminus of the molecule has beenreached. If not, then the process is repeated to step 412. If so, thenthe system assumes that the molecule has been sequenced, and the processis terminated with appropriate output to a printer or other outputdevice.

D. Applications

The techniques described herein will have a wide range of applications,particularly wherever desired to determine if a target nucleic acid hasa particular nucleotide sequence or some other sequence differing from aknown sequence. For example, one application of the inventions herein isfound in mutation detection. These techniques may be applied in a widevariety of fields including diagnostics, forensics, bioanalytics, andothers.

For example, assume a “wild-type” nucleic acid has the sequence5′-N₁N₂N₃N₄ where, again, N refers to a monomer such as a nucleotide ina nucleic acid and the subscript refers to position number. Assume thata target nucleic acid is to be evaluated to determine if it is the sameas 5′-N₁N₂N₃N₄ or if it differs from this sequence, and so contains amutation or mutant sequence. The target nucleic acid is initiallyexposed to an array of typically shorter probes, as discussed above.Thereafter, one or more “core” sequences are identified, each of whichwould be expected to have a high binding affinity to the target, if thetarget does not contain a mutant sequence or mutation. In thisparticular example, one probe that would be expected to. exhibit highbinding affinity would be the complement to 5′-N₁N₂N₃ (3′-P₁P₂P₃),assuming a 3-mer array is utilized. Again, it will be recognized thatthe probes and/or the target may be part of a longer nucleic acidmolecule.

As an initial screening tool, the absolute binding affinity of thetarget to the 3′-P₁P₂P₃probe will be utilized to determine if the firstthree positions of the target are of the expected sequence. If thecomplement to 5′-N₁N₂N₃ does not exhibit strong binding to the target,it can be properly concluded that the target is not of the wild-type.

The single base mismatch profile can also be utilized according to thepresent invention to determine if the target contains a mutant orwild-type sequence. FIGS. 15A and 15B illustrate typical illustrativeplots resulting from targets that are wild-type (FIG. 15A) and mutant(FIG. 15B). As shown, the single base mismatch plots for wild-typetargets generally follow the typical, smile-shaped plot. Conversely,when the target has a mutation at a particular position, not only willthe absolute binding affinity of the target to a particular core probebe less, but the single base mismatch characteristics will deviate fromexpected behavior.

According to one aspect of the invention, a substrate having a selectedgroup of nucleic acids (otherwise referred to herein as a “library” ofnucleic acids”) is used in the determination of whether a particularnucleic acid is the same or different than a wild-type or other expectednucleic acid. Libraries of nucleic acids will normally be provided as anarray of probes or “probe array.” Such probe arrays are preferablyformed on a single substrate in which the identity of a probe isdetermined by ways of its location on the substrate. Optionally, suchsubstrates will not only determine if the nucleotide sequence of atarget is the same as the wild-type, but it will also provide sequenceinformation regarding the target. Such substrates will find use infields noted above such as in forensics, diagnostics, and others. Merelyby way of specific example, the invention may be utilized in diagnosticsassociated with sickle cell anemia detection, detection of any of thelarge number of P-53 mutations, for any of the large number of cysticfibrosis mutations, for any particular variant sequence associated withthe highly polymorphic HLA class 1 or class 2 genes (particularly class2 DP, DQ and DR beta genes), as well as many other sequences associatedwith genetic diseases, genetic predisposition, and genetic evaluation.

When a substrate is to be used in such applications, it is not necessaryto provide all of the possible nucleic acids of a particular length onthe substrate. Instead, it will be necessary using the present inventionto provide only a relatively small subset of all the possible sequences.For example, suppose a target nucleic acid comprises a 5-base sequenceof particular interest and that one wishes to develop a substrate thatmay be used to detect a single substitution in the 5-base sequence.According to one aspect of the invention, the substrate will be formedwith the expected 5-base sequence formed on a surface thereof, alongwith all or most of the single base mismatch probes of the 5-basesequence. Accordingly, it will not be necessary to include all possible5-base sequences on the substrate, although larger arrays will often bepreferred. Typically, the length of the nucleic acid probes on thesubstrate according to the present invention will be between about 5 and100 bases, between about 5 and 50 bases, between about 8 and 30 bases,or between about 8 and 15 bases.

By selection of the single base mismatch probes among all possibleprobes of a certain length, the number of probes on the substrate can begreatly limited. For example, in a 3-base sequence there are 69 possibleDNA base sequences, but there will be only one exact complement to anexpected sequence and 9 possible single base mismatch probes. Byselecting only these probes, the diversity necessary for screening willbe reduced. Preferably, but not necessarily, all of such single basemismatch probes are synthesized on a single substrate. While substrateswill often be formed including other probes of interest in addition tothe single base mismatches, such substrates will normally still haveless than 50% of all the possible probes of n-bases, often less than 30%of all the possible probes of n-bases, often less than 20% of all thepossible probes of n-bases, often less than 10% of the possible probesof n-bases, and often less than 5% of the possible probes of n-bases.

Nucleic acid probes will often be provided in a kit for analysis of aspecific genetic sequence. According to one embodiment the kits willinclude a probe complementary to a target nucleic acid of interest. Inaddition, the kit will include single base mismatches of the target. Thekit will normally include one or more of C, G, T, A and/or U single basemismatches of such probe. Such kits will often be provided withappropriate instructions for use of the complementary probe and singlebase mismatches in determining the sequence of a particular nucleic acidsample in accordance with the teachings herein. According to one aspectof the invention, the kit provides for the complement to the target,along with only the single base mismatches. Such kits will often beutilized in assessing a particular sample of genetic material todetermine if it indicates a particular genetic characteristic. Forexample, such kits may be utilized in the evaluation of a sample asmentioned above in the detection of sickle cell anemia, detection of anyof the large number of P-53 mutations, detection of the large number ofcystic fibrosis mutations, detection of particular variant sequenceassociated with the highly polymorphic HLA class 1 or class 2 genes(particularly class 2 DP, DQ and DR beta genes), as well as detection ofmany other sequences associated with genetic diseases, geneticpredisposition, and genetic evaluation.

Accordingly, it is seen that substrates with probes selected accordingto the present invention will be capable of performing many mutationdetection and other functions, but will need only a limited number ofprobes to perform such functions.

EXAMPLES

1. (G+T)⁸ Array and Differential Sequencing

A (G+T)⁸ array was prepared and incubated with 1 nM5′-AACCCAACCCC-fluorescein (SEQ ID NO:4-fluorescein) (representing amutant sequence when compared to 5′-AACCCAAACCC (SEQ ID NO:3)) andscanned to test whether the sequence was “wild” or “mutant.” Theresulting image is given in FIG. 16. Four overlapping, exactlycomplementary octanucleotide probe/target hybridizations are expected ifone is assuming the target should be 5′-AACCCAAACCC (SEQ ID NO:3) withprobes: S-3′-TTGGGTTG, TGGGTTGG, GGGTTGGG, and GGTTGGGG. The resultsdemonstrated that the effect of a single base change is quite dramatic,especially in the number and identity of the different mismatchedprobe/target complexes that form on the array. If one assumes the targetnucleic acid generating the signal in FIG. 16 is 5′-AACCCAAACCC (SEQ IDNO:3) (i.e., the wild-type) then the mismatch profiles for thecomplementary probe S-3′-TTGGGTTT are shown in FIG. 17A. The mismatchprofile does not have the expected shape, and the probe/target complexhas a low fluorescence intensity. The strong peak corresponding to amismatch in position 8 indicates that the “correct” base in thisposition in the target is probably an A, because only A and C are foundin the target in this experiment. Mismatch position 6 also shows a smallpeak. By contrast, a similar plot using the probe sequence S-3′-TTGGGTTGprobe sequence as a core yielded the “smile” shape and high fluorescenceintensity. In FIG. 17B the same profile for the next 8-mer probe isshown. The peaks have shifted one position to the left, again confirmingthat the sequence vanes from wild-type at position 8 in the target.These correspond to the same positions in the original 11-mer targetfragment. These data predict that there is a single base change inposition 8 of the target, as compared to the wild-type.

All of the mismatch probe profiles corresponding to the assumed fragment5′-AACCCAACCCC (SEQ ID NO:4) are shown in FIG. 17C. One observes themutant position “moving” down the sequence. Finally in FIG. 17D themismatch plots are shown corresponding to the four probes thatcomplement 5′-AACCCAACCCC (SEQ ID NO:4), with the expected smilecharacteristics.

E. Conclusion

The present inventions provide improved methods and devices for thestudy of nucleotide sequences and nucleic acid interactions with othermolecules. The above description is illustrative and not restrictive.Many variations of the invention will become apparent to those of skillin the art upon review of this disclosure. Merely by way of examplecertain of the inventions described herein will have application toother polymers such as peptides and proteins, and can utilize othersynthesis techniques. The scope of the invention should, therefore, bedetermined not with reference to the above description, but insteadshould be determined with reference to the appended claims along withtheir full scope of equivalents.

1. A method of detecting a mutation in a target nucleic acid sequenceversus a known sequence comprising: a) exposing the target sequence toat least one known core sequence probe; b) determining the bindingaffinity of the target sequence to the at least one known core sequenceprobe; c) determining the binding affinity of the target sequence to atleast one probe that has a single nucleotide variation as compared tothe at least one known core sequence probe; and d) comparing the bindingaffinity determined in step b) to the binding affinity determined instep c); thereby detecting a mutation in a target nucleic acid sequenceversus a known sequence.
 2. A method of claim 1, wherein the at leastone known core sequence probe is an array of known core sequence probes.3. A method of claim 1, further comprising before step a), identifyingone or more core sequences which are present within the known sequenceand would be expected to have high affinity to the target sequence ifthe target sequence does not contain a mutation.
 4. A method of claim 1,wherein the binding affinity to the known core sequence probe is plottedas affinity versus mismatch position, and normalized to the affinity ofa perfect complement of the known core sequence probe.
 5. A method ofclaim 4, further comprising determining that the target sequencecomprises a mutation versus the known sequence if the pattern formed bythe normalized affinity plot of the target sequence does not match thepattern formed by an affinity plot of the perfect complement.
 6. Amethod of claim 1, further comprising determining if the bindingaffinity of the target sequence to the at least one known core sequenceprobe is weaker than the binding affinity of the known sequence to theat least one known core sequence probe.
 7. A method of claim 1, whereinthe at least one probe is between about 5 and 100 bases in length.
 8. Amethod of claim 7, wherein the at least one probe is between about 5 and50 bases in length.
 9. A method of claim 8, wherein the at least oneprobe is between about 8 and 30 bases in length.
 10. A method of claim9, wherein the at least one probe is between about 8 and 15 bases inlength.
 11. A method of claim 1, wherein the mutation in the targetsequence is indicative of a genetic disease.
 12. A method of claim 11,wherein the genetic disease is sickle cell anemia.
 13. A method of claim11, wherein the genetic disease is cystic fibrosis.
 14. A method ofclaim 11, wherein the genetic disease is associated with a P-53mutation.
 15. A method of claim 1, wherein the mutation in the targetsequence is indicative of a genetic predisposition.
 16. A method ofclaim 15, wherein the genetic predisposition is associated with aparticular HLA Class I or HLA Class II gene.
 17. A method of claim 15,wherein the ELA Class II gene is selected from the group consisting ofDP, DQ and DR beta.
 18. A method of claim 1, wherein detecting amutation in the target sequence is comprised in a genetic evaluation.19. A method of claim 18, wherein the genetic evaluation is a forensicsevaluation.
 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the binding affinity instep b) and c) is absolute binding affinity.
 21. A method of claim 25,wherein said at least one probe having a single nucleotide variation ascompared to the at least one known core sequence probe is made bysubstituting A, C, T, U or G at each position of the at least one knowncore sequence probe.
 22. A method of claim 1, wherein the at least onecore sequence probe or the at least one probe is attached to a bead.